FOLK MUSIC OF INDIA
India has a very rich tradition of folk music. The
extreme cultural diversity creates endless varieties of folk styles. Each
region has its own particular style. There is a tendency to lump folk music
along with tribal music.
There is actually a difference. Where folk music is
a mere rustic reflection of the larger Indian society, tribal music often
represents cultures that are very different. Some of these tribal cultures are
throwbacks to cultural conditions as they were thousands of years ago.
Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way
that Indian classical music is taught. There is no formal period of
apprentiship where the student is able to devote their entire life to learning
the music, the economics of rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The
musical practioners must still attend to their normal duties of hunting,
agriculture or whatever their chosen proffesion is. Music in the villages is
learned almost by osmosis.
From childhood the music is heard and embibed along
with ones mother's milk. There are numerous public activities that allow the
villagers to practice and hone their skills. These are the normal functions
which syncronise village life with the universe. The music is an indispensible
component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births. There is a
plethora of songs for such occasions. There are also many songs associated with
planting and harvesting. In these activities the villagers routinely sing of
their hopes, fears and aspirations.
Folk music is also used for educational purposes.
For instance, sex education has traditionally been taught in Andhra Pradesh by
song. There is a function when a girl has her first menses. In this function
the elderly women in the community gather at the house (men are definitely
excluded), the girl is given her first woni and langa (half sari which is worn
by unmarried girls), rich food and other gifts. During this function the women
sing songs that are extremely bawdy. To an outsider this would seem
uncharacteristic of obviously respectable community members. However, the
function of such songs is to provide the girl's first instructions on her
emerging womanhood and what her future marital duties will be.
Musical instruments are often different from those
found in classical music. Although instruments like the tabla may sometimes be
found it is more likely that cruder drums such as daf, dholak, or nal will be
used. The sitar and sarod which are so common in the classical genre are absent
in the folk music. One often finds instruments such as the ektar, dotar,
saringda, rabab, and santoor. Quite often they will not even be called these
names, but may be named according to their local dialect.
There are also instruments which are used only in
particular folk styles in particular regions. These instruments are
innumerable. The instruments that folk musicians use are generally not as
refined as the classical musicians use. The instruments of classical music are
crafted by artisans whose only job is the fabrication of musical instruments.
In contrast the folk instruments are commonly
crafted by the musicians themselves.It is very common to find folk instruments
that have been fabricated of commonly available materials. Skin, peritoneum,
bamboo, coconut shells, and pots are but a few commonly available materials
used to make musical instruments.
Type of Singing
Features of the style (VOCAL
MUSIC OF INDIA)
BHAJAN
The bhajan has a special place in
India. Most bhajans were written between the 14th through 17th centuries. They
are simple songs sung in the praise of God. Complex spiritual truths are
portrayed in the simple language of the farmers, merchants and other common
people of the time. Bhajan is an important part of a
Hindu revivalist movement which swept through India during the Mogul period;
this movement was known as the Bhakti movement. The crux of this movement was
simple; spiritual salvation was attainable to anyone who had a pure and
selfless love of God. This salvation was not predicated upon formalised yagnas,
pujas, knowledge of Sanskrit, or any of the characteristics of the older forms
of Hinduism. This was a spiritual empowerment of the masses. Bhajan is difficult to describe
musically because it is not defined by any musical characteristics; it is
defined by a sense of devotion (bhakti). Bhajans cover a broad spectrum of
musical styles from the simple musical chant (dhun) to highly developed
versions comparable to thumri.
The poetic content of the bhajan also covers
a broad spectrum. The more traditional ones by great saint musicians such as
Mira, Surdas, or Kabir are considered to be of the highest literary quality.
Many modern ones, although more easily understood by the masses, usually have a
literary value no greater than a typical film song (a popular form of music
generated for the masses). The lowest poetic form is the dhun, which is
actually nothing more than a musical version of a chant.
The structure of bhajan is very
conventional. It contains a single sthai and numerous antara. The last antara
has special significance because it contains the nom de plume of the author.
DADRA
Dadra is a light classical style which is very
similar to thumri. Although it resembles thumri it is much looser and allows
more freedom for the artist. The tals used are dadra of 6 beats, kaherava of 8
beats, or any other light tal. It is commonly performed in light rags such as
mand, pilu or pahadi.
DHAMMAR
Dholak is a very popular folk drum
of northern India. It is barrel shaped with a simple membrane on the right hand
side. The left hand is also a single membrane with a special application on the
inner surface.
Dhammar
is a very old style of singing. The name is also applied to instrumental
renditions of the same. It has many similarities to dhrupad. The major
difference is that it is slightly more romantic. Themes of dhammar typically
revolve around Krishna and the Holi festival. In fact the dhammar is often
called "hori" (holi). It is typically performed in dhammar tal of 14
beats. Dhammar, like its cousin the dhrupad, is rarely heard today.
DHRUPAD
Dhrupad is perhaps the oldest style of
classical singing in north Indian music today. The heyday of this style was in
the time of Tansen. It is a very heavy, masculine style performed to the
accompaniment of the pakhawaj (an ancient mridang). It is known for its austere
quality and strict adherence to the tal. The moods of dhrupad may vary but
themes revolving around the victories of great kings and mythological stories
are common. Devotional themes are also very common. The dhrupad usually adheres to a
four-part structure of sthai, antara, abhog, and sanchari. It is usually set to
chautal of 12 beats, tivra of 7 beats, or sulfak of 10 beats. Occasionally one
hears matt of 9 beats, or farodast of 14 beats. Its formal structure makes it a
very difficult style to master. Unfortunately, this rigidity has also made it
very difficult for the average person to appreciate. Today this style is almost
extinct.
GHAZAL
The
ghazal is a common form in Indian and Pakistan. Strictly speaking it is not a
musical form at all but a poetic recitation. However today it is commonly
conceived of as an Urdu song whose prime importance is given to the lyrics.
History
of the Ghazal
It is said that we must turn to
Arabia to find the origins of the ghazal. The word ghazal is an Arabic word
that literally means a "discourse" or more correctly a "talk to
women". There was an Arabic form of poetry called qasida which came to
Iran in about the 10th century. It dealt with the themes of the greatness of
kings.
The qasida was at times
unmanageably long. It was often 100 couplets or more. Therefore, a portion of
the qasida, known as the tashib was detached and this became the ghazal. The
ghazal soon became the most popular form of poetry in Iran.
Ghazal's
introduction into India from the 12th century, was part of an ongoing
revolution in North Indian society. India considered herself to be culturally
inferior to greater Persia. Thus Persian culture became a great inspiration for
India. The ghazal, along with many other cultural desiderata, were imported
into India from the 12th to the 18th centuries. These forms were given a local
colour by many Indian artists such as Amir Khusru, and continued to enjoy
widespread popularity among Indian Muslims for many centuries. Although the ghazal was
introduced first in the north, the south is responsible for its Urdu character.
The North Indian principalities were very much oriented toward Persian but it
was in the south that Urdu was beginning to be used for literary purposes. It
was in the courts of Golkonda, and Bijapur that this revolution occurred. Such
leaders as, Nusrati, Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah, and Wali are
notable in their patronage and contributions. Northern India began to embrace
Urdu as a poetic language only in about the 19th century.
The process of converting this
poetic form into a musical form was a slow one. In the 18th and 19th centuries
the ghazal became associated the courtesan. The courtesans, known as tawaif,
were considered the mavens of art, literature, dance, music, etiquette, and in
short, all of the high culture. They were widely acclaimed for their musical
abilities and did not hesitate to demonstrate these abilities when they
performed the ghazal.
The decline in the feudal society
at the end of the 19th and early 20th century brought with it a decline in the
tawaif tradition. This change in culture also saw a change in the performance
of ghazal. It continued to build upon its musical component, and began to be
heard more and more in the concert hall.
The job of converting ghazal to a
musical form was finished in the 20th century. The development of the recording
and film industries created a mass media that was well suited to the musical
ghazal. They also created an environment where it was convenient to treat the
ghazal as though it were a mere git. All of this had tremendous economic
advantages for performers and producers alike. Unfortunately it also created
economic pressures to lower the standards for the lyrical content.
Structure
of the Ghazal
The poetic structure of the
ghazal is precise. It is based upon a series of couplets which are woven
together by a precise rhyming structure. The overall form uses an introductory
couplet, the body of couplets, and then an concluding couplet. We will look at
these in greater detail.
The first couplet is always the
most important, this is known as the matla. The matla is important because it
establishes the overall form and mood of the entire ghazal. Occasionally there
are two matlas, in which case the second one is referred to as the
matla-e-sani.
Each subsequent couplet is linked
to the matla in a well defined fashion. The second verse of each couplet must
rhyme with this. Therefore if the rhyming structure of the matla is AA, then
the subsequent couplets have the form BA, CA, DA, etc.
There is a convention in the
ghazal known as the radif. This is a characteristic way that a portion of the
first line (usually just two or three words) is maintained throughout the
ghazal. However it is not always executed consistently. For instance if there
is no radif, the form is said to be ghair-muraddaf, this form is very rare. If
the exact same words are used in the radif, then it is said to be ham-radif.
The last couplet of the ghazal is
very important, this is called the maqta. It usually contains the pen name
(takhallus) of the poet. The maqta is usually a personal statement which may be
very different in tone from the rest of the ghazal. Today it is becoming more
common to leave off the maqta.
There are a few common themes in
the ghazal. Typically they revolve around unrequited love, madness, mystical
ruminations and even social commentaries ridiculing religious orthodoxy.
Certainly the most common is unrequited love. However, within each ghazal the
theme of each couplet need not be consistent. Each couplet may be thought of as
a thematic vignette that need not relate to it adjacent couplets.
Although the themes of each
couplet in a ghazal are usually distinct, there are some occasions where there
is consistency. The Nazm is an example of a style that exhibits remarkable
consistency in its thematic approach. A more common type of thematic connection
is known as qita. Still, the norm is for each couplet to stand alone
thematically.
Musical
Form
The musical form of the ghazal is
variable. The older more traditional ghazals were very similar to other
Hindustani light classical forms such as the dadra or, thumri. One often finds
forms that are similar to qawwali. They are typically in a variety of light
classical rags. However today, the ghazal usually has a form which is not too
dissimilar to many film songs. Such forms are usually decried by the purists
because they usually display a bastardisation of the lyrics and a careless
disregard of the forms.
The rhythmic forms (tal) of the
modern ghazal are invariably of the lighter forms. One typically finds rupak (7
beats), dadra (6 beats) and kaherava 8 beats being used to the near exclusion
of everything else.
GEET
A geet may, or may not be considered a
distinct style of song. The word "geet" actually means
"song". However, there is a tendency to use the term for many of the
lighter styles which do not fit the rigid classification of the more classical
forms. The geet need not be based upon a raga. It is usually set to the lighter
taals.
KHAYAL
Khayal has a special place in Indian music.
The near extinction of the dhrupad and dhammar styles has made it the de facto
standard for classical music. It is probably the most improvised of the Indian
styles. There are two major movements of kheyal. There is an extremely slow
section which is called vilambit, or bada kheyal: and a fast section called
drut or chotta kheyal. The vilambit section is extremely slow and usually
played in ektal of 12 beats. Occasionally, other tals such as jhumra of 14
beats are heard but this is most rare. The fast section is usually played in
drut tintal or drut ektal.
KIRTAN
The Kirtan or Dhun is related to the bhajan.
The major difference is that bhajan is usually performed by a soloist, while
kirtan and dhun usually involve the audience. The musical quality is
consequently much simpler to accommodate the uncertain musical abilities of the
participants. The term Kirtan is used by Hindus and Sikhs, while the term Dhun
seems to be used only by Hindus, especially Gujaratis.
QAWWALI
Qawwali is the traditional form
of Islamic song found in India and Pakistan. The word qawwali is derived from
the Arabic word Qaol which means "axiom" or "dictum". A
Qawwal is one who sings qawwali, or the dictums of the prophets and praises of
God. The Qawwali is closely linked to the spiritual and artistic life of
northern India and Pakistan.
Spiritual
Aspect
The qawwali is inextricably
linked to the Sufi tradition; Sufism is a mystical school of Islamic thought
which strives to attain truth and divine love by direct personal experience. In
Arabic, this mysticism is known as tasawwuf. The difference between Sufism and
mainstream Islam is simple. All Muslims believe that man is on a path to God
(tariqah). However where the mainstream Muslim believes that it is only
possible to reach God after death at the final judgement, the Sufi believes
that it is possible to reach God during ones life. To this end there are a
number of different techniques and methods.
The Koran instructs man to
remember God. This remembrance, known as dhikr, may be either silent of vocal.
The qawwali may be viewed as an extension of the vocal form of this
remembrance. The use of music as a spiritual force was discussed in great
length by al-Gazali(1085-1111).
By the end of the 11th century
there arose the tradition of the sama. The sama was often a spiritual concert,
which included a vocalist, and instrumentalists. These samas took place under
the direction of a spiritually respected man (shaikh).
There is a very specific
psychological process which a qawwali follows. One starts with the singing of
the song. In this psychological state the song is received in a manner that is
not unlike standard forms of musical expression. The words are sung, quite
repeatedly with variations intended to bring out deeper means of the lyrics.
After awhile there is a repetition to the extent that the words cease to have a
meaning; It is the goal here to lead the listener and performer alike into a
trance (hal). In the ideal situation the participant is moved to a state of
spiritual enlightenment (fana).
HISTORY
The origins of qawwali probably
predate the birth of Muhammad. The earliest Islamic scholars discussed the
spiritual effects of music, but it was only in the time of al-Gazali(1085-1111)
that these principles were refined and codified.
These principles were then
expanded by the Chisti school of Sufism. It is this order that has been
responsible for the propagation of the qawwali in India and Pakistan for then
last few centuries. The Chisti school was established
by Khwaj Moinuddin Hasan Chisti (1143-1234). It is said that he was born in
Sijistan. At a young age he was influenced by several saintly men, including
Ibrahim Qahandazi, and Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilli. He immigrated to Delhi and
became a very respected saint. He later grew tired of the life in Delhi and
withdrew to the peace and quite of Ajmer (Rajasthan) where he lived the
remainder of his days.
One of the followers of the
Chisti school was a man by the name of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325). He
was born in Budaun, but at the age of 20 he moved to Ajodhan and became a
disciple of Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakkar. It is said that it was here that he
received the key to inner illumination. He was then sent to Delhi to instruct
the populous. Here he acquired a reputation for using music in his devotional
gatherings. This created a great amount of friction with the more orthodox
Islamic elements in Delhi.
Nizamuddin
Auliya was, and still is, a source of inspiration for countless people. Even
today there is an annual gathering at his tomb.
One man who was inspired by the
Hazrat Nizamuddin was Amir Khusru (1254-1324). He was born in Mominpur
(Patiala). His father was originally from Turkey, this gave the young boy a
broader exposure to the rest of the Islamic world. His father died when he was
eight years old, whereupon the job of raising him fell to his maternal grandfather.
Amir Khusru was a legendary musician, statesman and philosopher. It is said
that he was the advisor to 11 rulers of Delhi, particularly the rulers of the
Khilji Dynasty (Deva 1973-76).
Amir Khusru is so important to
the development of qawwali that he is often (erroneously) said to be the
inventor of it. It is said that he mixed the various musical elements from
Turkey, greater Persia and India together. Even today, we find the curious
mixture of Persian moqquams with Indian ragas.
The development of the qawwali up
to the latter part of the Mogul empire closely parallels the development of the
Hindu religious song known as bhajan. We find parallels in musical form and
social settings. The degree of cross influence is so great that some musician /
saints such as Kabir (circa 1440-1518) are to this day revered by Hindus and
Muslims alike.
The tradition of qawwali has had
numerous ups and downs. One particularly hard time was during the reign of
Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb is known for his Islamic fundamentalism. The liberal
traditions of the Sufis were not well received by this emperor. He took the
fundamentalist injunction against music very seriously.
Aurangzeb's dislike of music is
well illustrated in a common story. It appears that during his administration a
group of musicians, disheartened with their lack of patronage, took some
musical instruments and wrapped them in the manner of a corpse and held a
funeral procession in protest. Aurangzeb enquires about the procession and is
told it is a burial to signify the death of music. Whereupon it is said that
the emperor declares, "Good! bury it so deep that never a sound should be
heard again."
The collapse of the Mogul empire
and political fragmentation under the British was both good and bad for the
qawwals. On one hand the political disarray meant that a major suppression of
their artform was impossible, yet it also meant that their patronage was also
uneven.
The rising film industry in the
middle of the 20th century was a major vehicle for the rise in popularity of
the qawwali. There was a period when a qawwali was a mandatory part of the
formula Hindi films.
The film industry influenced the
development of the qawwali in several ways. It is interesting to note that
since the environment of the cinema house precluded the artist /audience
interaction, it set the precedent for the more detached quality that
characterises modern performances. The filmi qawwali also set the precedent for
the "showy" quality that one finds in modern performances. Another
effect of the filmi qawwali was the downgrading of the religious / devotional
aspect. A typical example of a filmi qawwali is "Sharam ke kyun Sab"
from "Chaudvin ka Chand".
The secularisation of the qawwali
is an interesting phenomenon. One can see that the seeds of its secularisation
are inherent in the qawwali itself. Themes of qawwali have traditionally
revolved around very mundane or even coarse occurrences. However the coarseness
of the situations have always been interpreted as the coarse spiritual
existence of our daily lives. The modern secular qawwali tends to strip the
themes of their metaphorical and allegorical character thus producing a shallow
yet commercially marketable entity.
Performance
Characteristics
The performance of a qawwali is
typically a group situation. This is different from a classical performance
which revolves around one person. Within this group situation there is one main
vocalist or qawwal, and a group of supporting vocalist. The audience too is
considered a participant in this event.
The musical accompaniment is
varied; harmonium, tabla, dholak, sarangi, saringda, and rabab, are common
instruments. Furthermore, a simple clapping of the hands is a ubiquitous
rhythmic support.
There are several tals in common
use in the qawwali. The most common is the fast dadra tal of 6 beats or the
fast kaherava of four or eight beats. Unlike the more cerebral, classical forms
these tals are played in such a way that they produce a driving hypnotic beat.
Although
the qawwali is not a classical form of singing, it does have some common
elements. One finds fast taans, meend gamaks and the other forms of
ornamentation which are typical of Hindustani performances.
The structure of the qawwali is
also similar to the classical forms. It typically starts with the alap. This
portion has no rhythm and is intended to create the right environment. One then
moves into the main portion of the performance; this is usually in a medium
tempo. The pace slowly increases until a state of extreme excitement is
produced.
It is very common for audience
members, moved by their state of ecstasy to give money to the performers. This
is known as vel. The performance continues without stopping.
The most common rags used in
qawwalis today are bilawal, khammaj, kafi, and kalyan. However one often finds
rags which are more in common with the modal forms of Persia or Afghanistan.
SHAHBAD
Shabad is a style similar to
bhajan. However, these songs are popular among the Sikhs, while the bhajan is
found among the Hindus. The word "shabad" literally
means "word". As such it represents the verbal description of the
nature of God. This is generally from the Guru Granth Sahib which is the holy
book of the Sikhs. The shabad is also referred to as "Gurbani" which
literally means "Message of the Teacher". The philosophy of the shabad and
its relationship to spiritual growth is extremely sophisticated. It is said
that it takes a tremendous amount of study, devotion, and meditation to truly
understand the significance of the Gurbani. This is because, by its very
nature, it embraces the infinite qualities of God. The shabad has historically been
performed in very traditional styles. The Guru Granth Sahib, is very specific
in the rags that the various shabads are to be sung in. These are very typical
of the more classical rags of north Indian music (Hindustani Sangeet). The
traditional shabads are also in the more classical tals, such as teentaal and
ektaal. There is a modern tendency to
perform the shabad in lighter forms. The latitude that is sometimes taken is
very great. Some merely perform the shabad in rags different from those
specified in the Guru Granth Sahib. However other performers, either due to
ignorance or commercial considerations, perform the shabad in very light
styles. Sometimes these forms resemble more the film song, or the folk song,
rather than the austere and meditative rags specified in the Guru Granth Sahib. There is a special class of
performers whose duties are to sing the shabads; these are known as raagis. It
is a very difficicult task to be a good raagi because it requires a rare
combination of musical training, raw talent, years of study of the scriptures,
and a high level of spiritual development. It is obvious that such a
combination is a rare.
TAPPA
Tappa is a light classical style which is
declining in popularity. It is basically a classical style of music from the
Punjab.
TARANA
Tarana is based upon the use of
meaningless syllables in a very fast rendition. There is an interesting legend
concerning its origin: The story refers to a music
competition during the time of Allaudin Khilji. It had come down to two
finalists; a Hindu by the name of Gopal Nayak, and a Muslim named Amir Khusru.
Gopal Nayak was well aware that he was up against a formidable opponent. He
therefore sang a very fast song in Sanskrit, knowing quite well that Amir
Khusru did not know the language. Amir Khusru then sang the same song, note for
note, but substituting Persian words for the Sanskrit. The resulting
performance was thrilling even though it was unintelligible. In this way, Amir
Khusru won the competition and invented tarana. This legend is entertaining but
highly unlikely. It is likely that the transformation from intelligible Persian
lyrics to the present unintelligible syllables took a long time. Tarana is found all over India.
In south Indian music it is called tillana or thillana and is commonly used in
dance performances.
THUMRI
Thumri is a common style of light
classical music. The text is romantic and devotional in nature, and usually revolves
around a girl's love for Krishna. The language is a dialect of Hindi called
Brij bhasha. This style is characterized by a
greater flexibility with the rag. The compositions are usually set to kaherava
of 8 beats, addha tal of 16 beats, or dipchandi of 14 beats. It arose in
popularity during the 19th century.
Article by: Sourave Jyoti Mahanta
Kahilipara, Guwahati,
Assam- 781019
